*
Keynote address delivered by Dr. Ananda W.P. Guruge
at the opening session of the International Buddhist Conference entitled ‘New
Millennium Challenges for Buddhism’ held in Anuradhapura from February 17 – 19,
2012, to commemorate the 2600th anniversary of the Sambuddhatva Jayanti. This
International Buddhist Conference was organised and hosted by the Buddhasravaka
Bhiksu University, Anuradhapura, Sri Lanka.
*
1. Origin and Spread of Buddhism
Buddhism had
existed for over two thousand six hundred years ago in that we have just
celebrated in May last year its 2600th birthday. [1] During this period it had
spread to a significant part of the world bounded by Greece and Bulgaria in the
West, Mongolia and Buriatsi in the North, Japan, Korea and the Philippines in
the East and Maldive Islands and Indonesia in the South. That Buddhism was the
fountainhead of a multifaceted culture in this Region is evident from the vast
treasures of its architectural, artistic, literary, and philosophical heritage
of over two millennia. The following speak of the grandeur and glory of this
culture:
·
the ancient stupas of India of Bharhut, Sanchi, Amaravati, and
Nagarjunikonda, with their rich sculptural embellishments,
·
the gigantic and innovative Dagabas of Sri Lanka, e. g. Tissamaharama,
Seruwila, Ruvanveliseya, Abhayagiriya, Jetavana, Kelaniya, Satmahalprasadaya,
Demalamahaseya and Dedigama Kota Vihara,
·
the spectacular stupas and monasteries of Taxila and Takht-i-Bahi in
Pakistan,
·
the exquisite cave sculptures of Ellora in India and Yun-kang and
Lun-men in China,
·
the fascinating cave architecture, stone carvings, and paintings of
Ajanta, Bhaja, Karle, Nasik, Junnar and Kanheri of India, Kakrak of
Afghanistan, Dunhuang, T’rin-lun-shan and Kuang-sheng of China, and Dambulla of
Sri Lanka,
·
the magnificent murals of Situlpahuva, Tivanka-pilimage, Yapahuwa,
Dimbulagala and Degaldoruwa of Sri Lanka, Tepe Maredjan, Bamiyan, and Begram of
Afghanistan, Fundikistan of Central Asia, Yarkand, Khotan in Kashgaria, Aksu,
Kizil and Kucha in Kumtura, Sorchuk, Miran, Kocho and Turkan of Eastern
Turkestan,
·
the exquisite miniature stone carvings of the Gandhara school of
Buddhist art and its Indian counterpart in Mathura,
·
the stupendous Buddha statues of Bamiyan in Afghanistan, Lashen in
China, Sokkurgam in Korea, Galvihara, Aukana, Maligawila, Buduruvagala and
Sesseruva of Sri Lanka, and Nara and Kamakura of Japan,
·
the breathtaking monuments of Angkor Wat and Bayenne of Cambodia,
Borobudur of Indonesia, Anuradhapura, Polonnaruwa and Kandy of Sri Lanka,
Paharpur of Bangaladesh, Shwedagon, Mandalay, Pegu and Pagan of Myanmar,
Sukhothai, Chiangmai, and Ayutthaya of Thailand, and Potala of Tibet,
·
the impressive university complexes of Nalanda, Vikramsila,
Odantadapuri, and Valabhi of India, Mahavihara and Abhayagiri of Sri Lanka, and
Drepung, Sera and Shigatse of Tibet,
·
many thousands of Buddhist objects of art in the most prestigious
museums of the world, and
·
ever-increasing architectural and artistic creations of the highest
aesthetic and technical quality by the expanding Buddhist community of the
world today.
The rest of the
world including Europe, the Americas, Australia and New Zealand has received
the message of the Buddha only within the last two centuries. The colonization
of traditionally Buddhist countries by Britain and France enabled the Western
missionaries and administrators to discover Buddhism and its culture. It found
a nursery in the academia of Europe and North America and an enormous
contribution has been made by scholars in the study and publication of Buddhist
literature in Pali, Sanskrit, Chinese and Vietnamese and researches on its
philosophy, history and archaeology and socio-spiritual impact. [2]
It is more recently
that Buddhism in practice became worldwide due to three factors: (1) the
importation of labour from China and Japan to USA in the eighteenth and
nineteenth centuries, (2) the interest taken by an increasing body of
intellectuals in Europe and Northern America who found Buddhism to be an
alternative to Christianity and adopted it as their personal religion, [3] and
(3) the immigration of a multitude of ethnic Buddhists from Korea and Vietnam
as a result of the two wars and from Myanmar, Sri Lanka, Thailand and Taiwan
due to expanding opportunities for economic improvement. As such Buddhism is
the fastest growing religion in the Western world today.
As numerous as
professed Buddhists in these countries, who are mainly from Asia, are those who
find in Buddhism a variety of special activities fulfilling their spiritual
needs such as meditation, chanting, retreats and monastic experience. A fair
number of these, whom we would call the friends of Buddhism, remain culturally
Christian or Jewish while associating closely with Buddhist institutions and
the Sangha. Some even call themselves by such terms as Jubus (Jewish-Buddhists)
to indicate the dual interest.
2. The Foremost Millennium Challenge to Buddhism
What has this
recent development done to Buddhism as a whole? Buddhism is so widely known in
the world today that the knowledge of the Buddha and the basic doctrines of
Buddhism is indispensable as an integral aspect of cultural literacy. Hardly is
found an educated person in any country who is devoid of some familiarity with
Buddhism. But a major question has arisen in this process. That is: What is
Buddhism and how can it be defined?
When Buddhism was
confined to the traditionally Buddhist countries of Asia, each community had a
clear idea of what Buddhism meant to it. The Buddhists in countries in East
Asia, which continue to have the largest Buddhist populations, practiced
Mahāyāna Buddhism, studied Mahāyāna sutras as preserved in the Chinese
Tripitaka and worshipped the Bodhisattvas. Meditation as in Chan, Son, Zen or
Thien or the repetition of formulae like Namo Amatafo, Namo Amidabudsu or Namo
Amitaphat in Pureland Buddhism or Namo meo orengo kyeo in Nichiren Buddhism
divided them into recognizable groups. Tibet and Mongolia followed the
Vajrayāna tradition, in which mantras (incantations like Om mani padme hum), mudras
(gestures of worship) and mandalas (graphic aids to meditation) constitute the
main elements of worship. The countries of South and Southeast Asia had
preserved a form of early Buddhism with its scriptures in Pali, which is still
identified erroneously as Theravāda.[4] It lays emphasis on intellectual study
and discussion by both the Sangha and the laity, the observance of additional
precepts on special days by the laity and self-cultivation.
Each tradition,
school or sect of Buddhism had its own Sangha, who, though based on the same
principal rules of Vinaya, dressed differently and differed in the ways they
were prepared for their spiritual role. Their temples and shrines varied in
architectural design and each had special shrines as pagodas, chortens and
stupas. Even the Buddha was presented in physical characteristics specific to
each ethnic group. The Bodhisattvas were distinguished by particular
iconographical features and all traditions did not have equal prominence given
to such icons as Amitabha Buddha, Medicine Buddha, Dhyani Buddhas,
Avalokitesvara, Kwanying, Maitreya and Taras. Each also had different rituals
and forms of worship.
3. Seeking Unity in Diversity: The Beginning of a Buddhist Ecumenical
Movement
This diversity of
Buddhism was hardly known or recognized by the Buddhist populations of the
world as they developed in isolation and without any interaction among them. It
was only at the end of the nineteenth century that the different traditions,
schools and sects developed some contacts among them due to the efforts of
Anagarika Dharmapala of Sri Lanka who set up the Mahabodhi Society as the first
ever international Buddhist forum in 1891, his address to a sizeable Western
audience in the Parliament of World’s Religions in Chicago in 1893 and the
American Theosophist Colonel Henry Steel Olcott’s initiative to get Buddhists
of different countries to agree on a Platform of Fourteen Points which he
formulated in 1891.
But the most
significant development in modern times began in the middle of the twentieth
century when waves of ethnic Buddhists migrating to the major cities of Europe,
the Americas and the Oceania brought these many forms of Buddhism to co-exist
side by side. The rich diversity of Buddhism, which had developed in Asia
during long centuries of independent growth, has given the impression of many
“Buddhisms”[5] and few other than serious scholars have a clear idea of the
doctrinal and attitudinal unity which binds them together.
It is true that
several attempts have been made since Olcott to point out this unity. Christmas
Humphreys in Britain formulated in 1942 twelve principles highlighting the
common teachings of all traditions, schools and sects. The World Buddhist
Sangha Council convened by in Sri Lanka in 1966 with the hope of bridging
differences and working together unanimously adopted the following, which was
presented by Ven. Walpola Rahula:
1. The Buddha is
our only Master.
2. We take refuge
in the Buddha, the Dhamma and the Sangha.
3. We do not
believe that this world is created and ruled by a God.
4. Following the
example of the Buddha, who is the embodiment of Great Compassion (maha-karuṇā)
and Great Wisdom (mahā-prajñā), we consider that the purpose of life is to
develop compassion for all living beings without discrimination and to work for
their good, happiness, and peace; and to develop wisdom leading to the
realization of Ultimate Truth.
5. We accept the
Four Noble Truths, nameley Dukkha, the Arising of Dukkha, the Cessation of
Dukkha, and the Path leading to the Cessation of Dukkha; and the universal law
of cause and effect as taught in the prātitya-samutpāda (Conditioned Genesis or
Dependent Origination).
6. We understand,
according to the teaching of the Buddha, that all conditioned things (saṁskāra)
are impermanent (anitya) and dukkha, and that all conditioned and unconditioned
things (dharma) are without self (anātma).
7. We accept the
Thirty-seven Qualities conducive to Enlightenment (bodhipakṣa-dharma) as
different aspects of the Path taught by the Buddha leading to Enlightenment.
8. There are three
ways of attaining bodhi or Enlightenment, according to the ability and capacity
of each individual: namely as a disciple (srāvaka), as a Pratyeka-Buddha and as
a Samyak-sam-Buddha (perfectly and Fully Enlightened Buddha). We accept it as
the highest, noblest, and most heroic to follow the career of a Bodhisattva and
to become a Samyak-sam-Buddha in order to save others.
9. We admit that in
different countries there are differences with regard to the life of Buddhist
monks, popular Buddhist beliefs and practices, rites and ceremonies, customs
and habits. These external forms and expressions should not be confused with
the essential teachings of the Buddha.
More recently in
1997 the Sangha Council of Southern California and the American Buddhist
Congress did a similar exercise in identifying a common base for all of them in
ten points, as drafted by Venerable Havenpola Ratansara and Ananda W. P.
Guruge. [6]
4. Unity in Diversity – The Goal of Universal Buddhism
This diversity
creates the impression that the Buddha Sāsana is a splintered organization with
little hope for unity and cooperation. This impression is further strengthened
by the writings of early Western scholars who assumed that the Buddhist
traditions originated in cataclysmic rifts and struggles similar to those of
the Christian Reformation and the Counter-Reformation. But the Buddhist
situation has been totally different. Divisions in Buddhism have been caused by
isolation and independent development, and not by any confrontation.
These diverse
groups have existed without contact until recent times. In the traditionally
Buddhist countries this isolation and mutual ignorance persist even today. It
is in the big cities of Europe, America, and Australia that the various
traditions, schools, sects and other divisions have come to co-exist as a
result of the influx of ethnic Buddhists. Every upheaval in the Asian Region
has brought Buddhist immigrants to these continents in sufficiently large
numbers to augment earlier waves of migration: e.g. the rise of Communism in
China, the Korean War, the exile of His Holiness the Fourteenth Dalai Lama from
Tibet, the Vietnam War, and the political and economic situation in Myanmar,
Cambodia, Laos, Thailand, and Sri Lanka. Taiwan’s and perhaps also Korea’s
presence in these continents stemmed from spectacular economic growth and its
impact on the expansion of Buddhism.
As a result,
Mahāyāna schools of Japan, China, Taiwan, Korea and Vietnam, the Vajrayāna
tradition of Tibet, and the Southern Buddhism of Sri Lanka, Thailand, Cambodia,
Laos and Myanmar could establish contact, become familiar with one another,
discover the unity and common base of the teachings and practices of each
tradition, collaborate on common projects and movements, and approach the goal
of universal Buddhism. These experiences have brought about enormous benefits
to all Buddhist societies thus unified.
The situation in
the traditionally Buddhist countries is very different. With no or little
contact with forms of Buddhism other than what is indigenous to each country,
ignorance, prejudice, and misunderstanding continue unabated. As a consequence,
the Region as a whole is deprived of the benefits it can derive from unity and
cooperation.
Why we should make
a special effort to develop a common front is best illustrated by reference to
the experience of Venerable Master Taixu of China in the 1920s. Disappointed
with the isolation of the Buddhist Sangha and the relegation of Buddhism to
mountains as a spent force in China, he visited Sri Lanka in 1928 and 1940.
What he saw there he described in the following terms: “Though Buddhism in
Ceylon is generally considered to be Theravāda Buddhism, it is indeed the
practice of Mahāyāna Buddhism.” It was a compliment in appreciation of the
socially engaged Buddhism he witnessed in the Island: “[Sri Lankan Buddhists]
have made great efforts to study the doctrines and observe the precepts. That
is why many Buddhists, not only Buddhists from Burma and Thailand, but also
scholars doing research on the Theravāda Buddhism in the Pali Language all over
the world come to study Buddhism in Ceylon. Buddhists in Ceylon are widely
engaged in many causes, such as social welfare, culture, education and so
forth, thus giving benefits to the state, society and even the broad masses in
the world. This marks a great spirit of compassionate love in Buddhism.” [7]
Needless to say,
the reform of Buddhism, which Venerable Master Taixu spearheaded in China, was
largely inspired by the knowledge and experience he gained in Sri Lanka and
subsequently in Myanmar and Thailand. Today with greater facilities for travel
and study abroad, the cross-pollination accruing from the exchange of knowledge
and experience can be immense. Buddhist communities of Asia have much to learn
from one another for our common benefit and mutual reinforcement. But many
issues need to be addressed:
·
How can centuries of prejudice, nurtured further through total
isolation, be replaced by a better understanding and appreciation of the strong
common base of the Buddha’s teachings?
·
How can the friendly and productive co-existence of different
traditions, schools, sects and other divisions of Buddhism in Western countries
be extended to the traditionally Buddhist countries of the Asian Region and
emulated?
·
How open will Southern Buddhist countries be to the establishment of
Mahāyāna or Tibetan monasteries on their soil or to the popularization of
teachings, practices and literature of other Buddhist traditions? (In this
regard, the Northern Buddhist countries have already demonstrated a significant
openness: e. g. China which in Yunnan has a well-established Southern Buddhist
tradition; Nepal and Vietnam which had been receptive to Sri Lankan missionary
initiatives of especially Venerable Narada and continue to have the Sangha
trained in Sri Lanka and Thailand; and Japan and Taiwan where important
Southern Buddhist monastic institutions have come into existence in recent
years).[8]
·
How can the resources of the entire Buddhist world be pooled for the
progress of Buddhism as a gift to humanity?
The least that
needs to be stressed is that unity and cooperation are indispensable to
Buddhists to meet the challenges of the modern world. We cannot stay divided or
remain ignorant of the strength which diversity confers on Buddhism. In the
first place, the more we learn of the specificities of each group of Buddhists,
the more we become convinced of the underlying unity of the fundamental
teachings of traditions, schools or sects. [9]
My own experience
since I urged for interdenominational understanding among Buddhists of the
world through my writings which date back to 1954 is that I have personally
benefited from my exposure to the rich and varied ethical, philosophical,
literary, and cultural heritage of the Buddhist world as a whole. My final
appeal, therefore, is that we all share this invaluable treasure for our own
benefit. [10]
5. Towards Universal Buddhism: The Current International Effort
Many in the West
like to see the evolution of a unified form of Buddhism. Tricycle, the Buddhist
periodical published in the USA, sees such unity as a combination of the
Mahāyāna, Theravāda and Vajrayāna traditions. There are others who advocate
unity in the form of a Buddhayāna or Ekayāna. The ethnic Buddhists, on the
other hand, are more conservative and favor the retention of their specific
forms of Buddhism without any attempt at assimilation or interaction. This may
be all right as far as the first generation of immigrants is concerned.
What will happen in
the future when the younger generations, with increasing exposure to science
and technology, participatory democratic processes and new trends in
spirituality, find dissatisfaction with what is taught and practiced as
Buddhism by their elders? This is a tremendous challenge for the Buddhist
leadership in general and the Sangha in particular. How should they prepare to
face this challenge especially because the issue is the credibility of what
Buddhism stands for?
Fortunately, the
need for a unified front consisting of all traditions, schools and sects to
grapple with this problem has been widely recognized and a significant
international effort to foster unity, cooperation and interaction has been made
through such organizations as the World Fellowship of Buddhists, the World
Buddhist Sangha Council, and Buddhist forums and summits convened by national
[11] and international bodies.
The World
Fellowship of Buddhists, which celebrated its Diamond Jubilee in 2010 in Sri
Lanka, brings together every two years representatives of all Buddhist
traditions, schools and sects to consider ways and means of promoting the
advancement of Buddhism in the world scene. It has already fostered a greater
understanding and collaboration among diverse Buddhist groups. The Word Sangha
Council does similar work through monastics and has proved to be a very
important forum to develop unity and cooperation. Similar efforts are being made
by frequent conferences and seminars. But how successful are they in facing the
challenge and what more has to be done? What is done by these organizations
should have the desired impact at the grassroots level.
6. How to ensure the Progress of Buddhism in the Coming Millennia
In 1982, Sri Lanka
in collaboration with the World Fellowship of Buddhists convened the World
Conference of Buddhist Leaders and Scholars. It was an august assembly
consisting of all traditions and schools of Buddhism. It identified ten areas
of concern for immediate international action. [12] (See Chapter II of my “An
Agenda for the International Buddhist Community,” Colombo 1993).
These were the ten
areas of concern identified:
·
Peace, Human Rights, and Disarmament
·
Preserving the integrity of Buddha Dhamma through the prevention of
distortion and misinterpretation
·
Studies and research and missionary services
·
Inculcation of Buddhist values and practices in daily life
·
Effectiveness of the Sangha
·
Need to organize and mobilize Buddhist women
·
Channeling of youth power
·
Buddhist communities in disadvantaged positions
·
Protection of Buddhist monuments and prevention of the desecration of
sacred symbols and objects
·
Improving the economic capacity of Buddhist communities.
Though three
decades had passed since these concerns were identified, much remains to be
done. The growing international leadership of the Buddhist movements has a task
cut out for not decades but perhaps centuries to come.
How can the
progress of Buddhism, or more precisely the Buddha Sāsana, be ensured? The word
Sāsana, derived for the Pali root sās – to instruct, admonish or preach, means
the Dispensation of the Buddha and signifies all aspects of Buddhism as an
organized world religion. Traditionally the Sāsana consists of the following
three aspects:
·
Pariyatti – Literary and educational component (Theory)
·
Paṭipatti – Observance and praxis (Practice)
·
Paṭivedha – Penetration and Deliverance (Realization)
In 2003, I
identified the following challenges which have to be encountered in ensuring
the continuing progress of Buddhism in the world and listed them as issues to
be resolved with action: [13]
a. The Literary or Textual Component (Theory)
Buddhism outranks
all other religious systems of the world by the sheer volume of its scriptural
literature, which has been developed over twenty-six centuries in over a dozen
languages.
The Pali Canon, the
Tipiṭaka, in its present printed form in Roman script is a five-foot library of
45 volumes. That it evolved from the initiatives of the Buddha and his
immediate senior disciples is borne out by internal evidence. Equally well
established by fragmentary manuscripts is that its contents and structure had
been maintained in versions of the Canon in other languages such as Sanskrit,
Prakrits, and Khotanese. The Āgama Sūtras of the Chinese Tripiṭaka in the
Taisho version maintain a very close resemblance in content and structure with
the Pali Tipiṭaka. The extensive and intensive scholastic activity of the
Sangha extended to the development of the Abhidhamma, the quasi-canonical works
like Miliṇḍapañha, Nettippakaraṇa and Peṭakopadesa, whose authorship is unknown
other than in the case of Kathāvatthu of the Abhidhammapiṭaka. The author of
this work was Thera Moggaliputtatissa, the President of the Third Buddhist
Council of the third century BCE. Pali literature continued to grow with the
enormous exegetical literature of Aṭṭhakathās, Ṭīkās, Ṭippaṇis and glossaries,
many chronicles, and prose and poetical compositions of a wide variety.
The great Buddhist
Sanskrit works, Mahāvastu and Lalitavistara, dealt mainly with the biography of
the Buddha and have inspired many works of Buddhist art in Asia which depict
events of the Buddha’s life and career. Saddharmapuṇḍārīka (better known as the
Lotus Sūtra), documenting and elaborating the major development of Buddhism as
a popular religion, has gained the stature of a revered scripture. The rest of
the voluminous Mahāyānasūtras and the copious Avadāna literature in Sanskrit
and their many translations and versions in Chinese and Tibetan singly and
collectively serve as the textual and scriptural foundations of the major
Northern Buddhist traditions and schools. Prajñāpāramitā of 8000 verses,
Lankāvatarasūtra, Avataṁsakasūtra, Śūrangāmasūtra, Sandhinirmocanasūtra and
Vimalakīrtinirdeśasūtra are particularly important. Their impact on the
understanding and practice of the Buddha Dhamma has lasted many centuries and in
recent years has drawn the special attention of Buddhist scholars.
The same has to be
said about the philosophical works of Nagarjuna, Asanga and Vasubandhu. Their
elaboration of the concepts of śūnyatā (emptiness), svabhāva (own nature or
intrinsic existence), ālayavijñāna (store-consciousness), and vijñaptimātra
(mind-only) dominates the philosophical content of Mahāyāna and Vajrayāna
traditions. The vast Tibetan collections of Tanjur and Kanjur are being
discovered recently and their importance for all traditions of Buddhism only
partially recognized. Thousands of manuscripts await identification,
cataloguing, editing, and translation not only in the libraries of Asia but
also in collections taken to the West by early explorers and scholars.
Thus the content of
the Pariyatti aspect of Sāsana is beyond estimation. After nearly one and a
half centuries of research, many questions remain to be answered:
·
Are the invaluable manuscripts secure in their present locations and are
they accessible to scholars for study, evaluation and publication?
·
Are there adequately qualified and philologically and philosophically
competent scholars available for this purpose?
·
Do resources and facilities exist for these manuscripts to be published
and brought to the attention of the Buddhists in general? Is there a market to
make it commercially feasible? If not, what other resources remain to be
explored?
·
Are the works already published known and used in circles beyond
specialist scholars? Do they reach and benefit practitioners and students of
Buddhism?
·
Are the academic and literary advances made in isolated Buddhist
societies in places like Myanmar, Bangladesh and Nepal brought to the attention
of wider Buddhist community?
·
Is the excellent research into Buddhist philosophy, literature, history,
and culture in such national languages as Chinese, Japanese, Korean, Thai,
Sinhala, and Hindi accessible to scholars of the world?
·
Are translations produced over a century ago in a literary style that is
readable today or are they already dated?
·
Have translators been conscious of the need to popularize their work?
(Cf. for example the Budddha Jayanti Sinhala translation of the Tripiṭaka, done
by scholars in elegant classical styles, which need to be re-translated into an
idiom, which the common reader can understand).
·
Is adequate research being done on what is already accessible in
critical editions and translations?
·
Are initial works of pioneering scholars reviewed for accuracy and
misrepresentations, and misinterpretations corrected?
·
Is adequate attention given to steps necessary for the continuing use of
this vast literature for the promotion of Buddhist Studies and the propagation
of Buddhist practice?
The answers to each
of these questions could be “No,” even though some significant work is being
done in several centers of the world and the more serious problems are dealt
with. The need for wider participation and continuing effort cannot be
over-emphasized. It can be a task for many decades but the urgency is patent.
The strategies for action
also need to be reviewed. Digital modalities have simplified publication,
access and retrieval. Already modest efforts have been made in this direction.
Mahidol University and Dharmakaya Foundation of Thailand has the Thai edition
of the Tripiṭaka available on a CD-ROM. S. N. Goenka has the Tripiṭaka, the
Pali Commentaries and major works of the Pali literature accessible in six
different scripts in one CD-ROM and search for words and expressions has been
facilitated with requisite mechanisms. The Electronic Buddhist Text Initiative
of Lewis R. Lancaster of Berkeley has similarly bought the Korean edition of
the Chinese Tripiṭaka digitally to interested scholars. The Internet is used
for similar results by enthusiasts in Cambodia and Australia. But more has to
be done, and that, too, urgently. Digital libraries, however, cannot replace
the traditional library as long as the printed word remains the foremost medium
for knowledge. Especially in the traditionally Buddhist countries of South and
Southeast Asia, books and libraries will continue to be the major need. The
need is for a multi-pronged approach to the questions we raise above.
b. The Literary Resources and the Educational Component
Buddhist education
in both dimensions of (a) the regular instruction of monastics and lay
Buddhists and (b) the promotion of academic Buddhist Studies have made giant
strides over the last century and a half all over the world. Still the
questions of both quantity and quality remain to be solved. Institutions,
curricula and learning materials present complex issues:
How can the
institutional infrastructure of countries like Cambodia and Laos be restored
and made adequate for the current demand?
How can these
countries and also Bangladesh and Nepal be assisted in developing curricula,
instructional strategies and learning materials to overcome the problems caused
by disruption and shortage of qualified educators?
How can Sri Lanka
cope with its dwindling number of English-proficient Buddhist scholars to
maintain a lead role in this sphere?
How can the
impressive resources of Thailand be devoted to serve the wider Buddhist world?
Taken as a whole,
the traditionally Buddhist countries of the whole of Asia need to revamp their
Buddhist educational activities, both formal and non-formal. Japan and Taiwan
have been reaching out to Buddhist societies beyond their shores and their
contributions have been substantial. Others have problems to solve nationally.
The dearth of resources, mainly trained human resources for Buddhist education,
is a problem in which international cooperation might provide some relief.
Especially urgent is the insufficiency of effective teachers, suitably
developed curricula, courses and course material, and modern textbooks and
reference works. Here, again, the challenges and opportunities of the
electronic digital age and on-line educational technologies have to be heeded.
c. Education for Missionary Activities
Though Buddhism is
not engaged in active proselytization, Dharmadūta activities to bring the knowledge
and the practice of Buddhism within the reach of seekers remains a primary
concern of Buddhists. It is true that several generations of Buddhist monastics
of Asia have succeeded in taking Buddhism to far-flung places. They, however,
face new problems and it does not appear that these problems are being
seriously dealt with. As far as Dharmadūta work in the West is concerned, the
need for suitable literature in required languages to serve diverse categories
of seekers is paramount. Good translations of the Word of the Buddha are vital,
as these new seekers prefer original scriptures to interpretive manuals and
treatises. In addition, they need books and articles, which are specially
prepared for their level of interest and general knowledge.
Western readership
looks for insightful writings by authorities that discuss Buddhism convincingly
in relation to science, technology, philosophy and Western culture in general,
and other religions in particular. The faith-evoking narratives on the wondrous
and the miraculous do not impress them. What they want to know most is how
Buddhism responds to current problems in day-to-day life such as abortion,
euthanasia, suicide, asexual procreation, cloning and so forth. While the
practice of meditation usually brings them to Buddhist institutions, these
seekers do expect Buddhism to serve an intellectual function too. Hence the
importance of a comprehensive literature to be prepared with special care.
Every country in
the world, including traditionally Buddhist countries, has the need for
internal missionary services. As education expands, Buddhism gains in
popularity and acceptance mainly due to its appeal to rationalism. The educated
youth subject Buddhism to critical study and wish to experiment with Buddhist
practices such as chanting and meditation for spiritual development. A
literature to cater for them needs to be produced with special attention to the
intellectual curiosity of young minds. As regards the outreach to the seekers
of new knowledge, there has been a satisfactory utilization of electronic media
such as the radio and the television. The digital facilities remain to be used
more widely and the initiatives of those like the Buddhanet of Venerable
Pannyavaro of Australia are becoming quite popular. Here, again, the emphasis
has to be in the sphere of doing more of what has proved to be relevant and
effective.
d. Observance and Praxis (Practice)
Laity: The Buddha’s own
admonition was to know a little but practice diligently. He compared the
bookish scholars to cowherds who protected other people’s cows without
themselves deriving the benefits of milk and milk products (Dhammapada 19-20).
In short, Pariyatti is a stepping stone to Paṭipatti. No objective statistical
data are available on how Buddhism is practiced either in the traditionally
Buddhist countries and societies or in new Buddhist communities elsewhere. All
information available is in the form of anecdotal evidence, which by nature is
highly subjective. Some would report extremely favorable conditions while
others would say the opposite. Both could be correct as they assess the nature
of practice according to their own criteria and experience. The absence of
congregational worship and registration of temple membership adds a further
difficulty. The issues to be examined as far as the laity is concerned are as
follows:
·
What constitutes Buddhist practice – frequent or regular visits to
temple for worship, chanting of Paritta or Mahāyāna sūtras, and meditation?
Regular observance of Eight Precepts on the Buddhist Sabbath? Attendance at the
preaching of Dhamma? Providing requisites for monastics? And such other
temple-centered activities?
·
To what extent do home-based activities such as individual worship,
meditation, family chanting, and the repetition of such formulas as Namo Amito
Fo, Namu Amida Budsu, Om mani padme hum or Namo myo horenge kyo constitute
Buddhist practice?
·
Do the triple practices of Dāna, Sīla and Bhāvanā (giving, observance of
precepts, and meditation) define a comprehensive set of Buddhist practices
which can be universally accepted by all traditions and schools of Buddhism?
·
What is the place of ritual, which vary from tradition to tradition
(e.g. Buddhapūjā and Bodhipūjā of Southern Buddhism; Protective rites connected
with Avalokiteśvara and other Bodhisattvas of Mahāyāna Buddhism; Kālacakra
initiation and other elaborate ritual of Tibetan Buddhism)?
·
What is the relative importance of Pañcasīla (five Precepts),
Aṭṭhangasīla (Eight Precepts), Dasasīla (Ten Precepts) and the four Boddhisattva
Vows as Buddhist practice?
·
Is temporary ordination, as practised in Southeast Asia, an aspect of
Buddhist practice worthy of universalization?
Sangha: The whole issue of
the Sangha also falls under the Paṭipatti aspect of the Sāsana. Renouncing the
householder’s life and becoming a bhikkhu or bhikkhuṇī is, undoubtedly, the
highest ideal in the Buddha Sāsana. The space-like freedom of the monastic life
has been extolled as the most desirable ambience for the practice of the
Buddha’s teachings. Many are the issues relating to the Sangha:
·
Why does a person become a monastic – For the pursuit of one’s own
spiritual development and deliverance? To serve the Sāsana as an educator,
scholar, missionary, institutional builder or mobilizer of human and material
resources? To safeguard the Buddhist heritage? To lead a life of relative
comfort with minimum obligations? Or what else?
·
Do the Sangha and the laity share a common understanding of each other’s
role and mutual obligations?
·
Is the training of monastics systematic, adequate and in keeping with
the highest standards of the Vinaya?
·
Is there a growing consensus on the recent efforts in Southern Buddhism
to revive the Bhikkhuṇī Order? How else are the aspirations of the women to be
satisfied?
·
How can a steady growth in the Sangha be guaranteed with special
attention to motivating the educated youth to become monastics especially in
the West?
·
Are reform and innovation in Vinaya possible and desirable to make the
Sangha cope with current social and economic conditions?
All these are
sensitive issues and have to be solved by the Sangha itself. Nevertheless, it
is necessary to list them and draw attention because, as the Buddha says,
“The lay and the homeless alike
Each supporting the other
Accomplish the true doctrine
The peerless refuge from Bondage.”
(Itivuttaka 107)
e. Penetration and Deliverance (Realization)
The ultimate goal
of Buddhism is the cessation of suffering. It is a path of deliverance,
salvation, redemption, release, liberation or emancipation. The diligent
Buddhist aspires to attain Nibbāna, the sumnum bonum of Buddhism, which is
described as a state of peace, tranquility, immortality and supreme happiness.
Its attainment is signified as enlightenment, which one attains in this life
itself. Parinibbāna (Complete or Perfect Nibbāna) is obtained at death. All
Buddhist traditions agree that enlightenment and Nibbāna are within reach of
every sentient being. The Mahāyāna tradition, based on the concept of
Tathāgatagarbha, stresses that each sentient being possesses the Bodhicitta
(Enlightenment-mind), which in popular parlance is translated as “Buddha
Nature.”
Not all Buddhists,
however, agree on how and when to attain enlightenment. The Sri Lankan view has
been that no one had attained this state of perfection since Thera Maliyadeva a
thousand or so years ago. The usual aspiration of a Sri Lankan Buddhist, as
couched in the traditional Punyānumodanā (merit-offering), is to await the
arrival of the Buddha Metteyya (Maitreya). This belief, however, has not
prevented a substantial number of earnest monks to take to lifelong meditation
in forest hermitages. Other Buddhists of Southeast Asia believe that dedicated
monks in forest hermitages have achieved and continue to achieve the state of
an Arahant and attain Nibbāna in this very life. They also believe that some of
these monks have developed dhyāna practices to a point of achieving Iddhipāda
or miraculous powers. The Chinese Chan tradition as developed in Korea as Son
and Japan as Zen aspires to enlightenment through in-depth meditation and
believes that it comes suddenly (Cf. Satori). Other traditions are less clear;
an extremely devoted Tibetan monastic would have himself sealed in a cave for
life in search of enlightenment. Issues pertaining to this aspect of the Sāsana
are as follows:
·
Should the Buddhists have a common understanding about the attainment of
Nibbāna as a goal in the current life?
·
If so, what facilities need to be available for those who seek it?
·
How can the pursuit of Vipassanā meditation be instituted into regular
Buddhist practice?
·
How can meditation centers and forest hermitages promote meditation for
the purpose of developing Dhyānas and various stages of the Path and the Fruit
(maggaphala), thus attaining the end of suffering?
·
Or, is this aspect of the Sāsana to be left entirely to the interested
individual without any societal involvement?
Progress of
Buddhism would entail the solution of all these issues which affect Buddhists
as well as those who call themselves friends of Buddhism.
7. Is a Cross-Sectarian Mechanism for Integrated Efforts needed for the
Progress of Buddhism?
Prospects for the
future are indeed very bright for Buddhism to redouble its effectiveness in the
traditionally Buddhist countries of the Asian Region and also to expand
substantially its influence in the world. The issues we have identified for
action are in no way insurmountable. We have, however, to act severally and
collectively. The more we meet and discuss the tasks at hand, the more we equip
ourselves to solve them. “Samavāyo sādhu (coming together or cooperation or
collaboration is excellent)” said Asoka the Righteous, the paragon of Buddhist
practitioners. He urged for a collective search for the inner essence of all
religions. In the context of our present efforts, we should begin by seeking
the inner essence of our common faith.
To revamp the
Buddha Sāsana, urgent steps need to be taken in all three aspects of Pariyatti
(Theory), Paṭipatti (Practice) and Paṭivedha (Realization). No single group can
address all the issues without collective action, because our resources are
diverse. A group with abundant monetary resources may have a dearth of
qualified human resources to teach, manage and write. Scholars capable of
solving problems in the Pariyatti domain may lack access to publication. Or
their need could be for specialists in the digital field to utilize electronic
modalities to an optimum degree. It is urgent therefore to pool all available
resources. But far more important is the will to act. There is no time to
waste. The present good times may pass before we can fully utilize its
advantages. Hence the need for commitment. It is time for us to heed the
Buddha’s own final message: mā nivatta, abhikkama (Do not turn back. Go
forward).
Conclusion
Now I come to the
question assigned to me by the organizers of the Conference: Is a
cross-sectarian mechanism for integrated efforts needed for the progress of
Buddhism in the next millennium, is it feasible and, if so, how is it to be
developed?
It may be useful to
review some efforts made in this direction in the past. As already mentioned,
the Mahabodhi Society founded by Anagarika Dharmapala in 1891 was conceived as
a cross-sectarian forum in that he was successful in bringing into it all
traditions of Buddhism. Its membership and leadership were international and
several branches were established all over the world. “The consolidation of the
different Buddhist nations” was the first objective of the Anagarika. If this
meant that, despite the variations in beliefs, practices and rituals, the
Buddhists of various traditions began to share a common identity and cooperate
to achieve a series of identified goals, it was certainly successful. But it
never grew to be a cross-sectarian mechanism with either authority or means to
sustain any integrated effort. After one hundred and ten years, it is only the
name that is shared by its surviving branches as each acts independently.
Interestingly even the Mahabodhi Society of India and the Mahabodhi Society of
Sri Lanka have no common ground. The Indian Society on account of the diversity
of Buddhism in the subcontinent remains cross-sectarian while Sri Lankan
Society has nothing to do with the Mahāyāna and the Vajrayāna traditions.
When Professor
Gunapala Malalasekera carried on long-drawn consultations with the leaders of
the international Buddhist community with the intention of setting up in 1950 a
world Buddhist organization which could be a formidable cross-sectarian
mechanism for integrated efforts to promote Buddhism, he was in for a surprise.
Still ignorant of the unity which underlay the diversity, the agreement he
could get from the leaders was for a fellowship to promote unity, goodwill and
understanding. After sixty years, its main achievement is that a semblance of a
unified community among the Buddhists of the world had developed in that all
have adopted the six-coloured Buddhist flag and the Dharmacakra as their
symbols and the Vesak as the Buddha day in May to be observed universally.
In 1988, at the General
Conference held in the Hsi Lai Temple in Hacienda Heights, California, I was
required to examine the role of the World Fellowship of Buddhists as regards
Buddhist unity and world peace. Analyzing its activities since its inception, I
asked the question: Do we see a need to become an active forum for Buddhists to
discuss their problems, design and adopt solutions, raise funds and resources
and implement programs of action on the basis of time-bound targets? My own
answer was: Let us become a modern goal-oriented and achievement-guided
international organization. Let us have a Program and budget, however, small to
begin with. Assuming that such a transformation from what was more like a
goodwill country club to such an organization required time, I also added:
Twelve years will not be too long a period to activate the international
Buddhist community to form themselves into an organization with (i) assured
resources, (ii) a program and budget and (iii) a secretariat to implement it.
The action to change the Constitution of the Fellowship to make the required
transformation continued for nearly two decades until the General Conference in
Tokyo in 2000 decided otherwise. But the effort had not been altogether in
vain. It was in the spirit of becoming a service-oriented organization that the
Fellowship set up in 1998 the World Buddhist University and progressively
attained substantial visibility in active participation in humanitarian
disaster assistance.
The World Buddhist
Sangha Council, established in 1966, with the objective of attaining
cross-sectarian understanding and cooperation has had a similar experience in
being anything more than a fellowship to promote goodwill among monastics of
the different traditions. Compared to what existed decades ago, the harmonious
relations, which the Council has developed among the monastics, are a
significant achievement.
There had been
other attempts to create a cross-sectarian mechanism. An attempt by a Korean
prelate in the 1990s was to declare himself the Buddhist Pope with an eminent
Sri Lankan prelate as the Deputy Pope and seek the approval of the United
Nations for recognition. In some circles in the West, the question has been
raised why the Buddhists around the world could not rally around His Holiness
the Dalai Lama. Especially in the academia, some significant achievements had
been made. The International Association of Buddhist Studies, established by
Professor A.K. Narain, is a thriving mechanism of cooperation among scholars.
Recently established Association of Buddhist Universities in connection with
the UN Vesak celebrations in Bangkok, Thailand, too, is a promising
organization. Both promote cross-sectarian cooperation but are not set up to
exercise any authority as mechanisms for integrated effort.
The experience so
far is that the international Buddhist community has still not realized the
need for an action-oriented body to initiate and implement an integrated effort
for the promotion of Buddhism. Buddhist traditions, schools and sects have
developed in a highly decentralized, democratic and independent fashion
throughout their history. That brings in the question for feasibility. While a
collective effort would indeed be a step in the correct direction, it has to be
conceded what is practicable and possible at present is to revamp those
organizations like the World Fellowship of Buddhists and the World Buddhist
Sangha Council to expand progressively their influence and activities and
assume a coordinating role.
* * *
Notes
[1] This date is
based on the Sri Lankan chronology which places the demise of the Buddha in 543
BCE. The uncertainty of the date of the Buddha’s death has been noted by Xuan
Shang (629CE) who observed, “The different schools calculate variously from the
death of Buddha. Some say it is 1200 years and more since then. Others say 1300
and more. Others say 1500 more. Others say that 900 years have passed but not
1000 years since the Nirvana.” Samuel Beal: Si-yu-ki, The Buddhist Records of
the Western World, Motilal Banarsidass, Delhi 1884/1981 Volume II p. 33.
[2] For a
comprehensive account of the scholarly movement known as “Orientalism” see my
“From the Living Fountains of Buddhism,” Ministry of Cultural Affairs, Colombo
1984.
[3] The foremost
among them was Colonel Henry Steel Olcott and Madame Helena Petrovna Blavatsky,
who embraced Buddhism in Sri Lanka in 1880. Olcott’s Buddhist Catechism,
published in 1881, remained for a long time the main book through which the
general public of the West came to know Buddhism.
[4] Theravāda
Buddhism as preserved and propagated by the Mahāvihāra ceased to exist in its
pristine form after the three monasteries, namely Mahāvihāra, Abhayagiri and
Jetavanārāma were unified by Parakramabahu I in the twelfth century. The new
form which Georges Coedes calls the “Sinhala reform” was an amalgam of
Theravāda, Mahāyāna and Vajrayāna and proved to be more acceptable not only in
Sri Lanka but also in Southeast Asia. For details see my “Does the Theravāda
Tradition of Buddhism exist Today?” in “Buddhist and Pali Studies in honour of
Venerable Professor Kakkapalliye Anuruddha” Hong Kong University, Hong Kong,
2009 pp. 97-107.
[5] See Stephen T.
Teiser (ed): Buddhisms Princeton University Series, 2011.
[6] For the three
documents of Colonel Henry Steel Olcott, Christmas Humphreys and Havenpola
Ratanasara-Ananda W. P.Guruge, see my “What in Brief is Buddhism?” Buddha Light
Publishing, Hacienda heights, California 2003, pp. 126-136.
[7] Weifang, Tai
Xu’s Diary abroad, Complete Works by Venerable Tai Xu, volume 56, pp. 585- 650.
[8] A significant
openness is shown in Sri Lanka where Venerable Bhikkhunī Kusuma has translated
into Sinhala and published as many as seven books of Venerable Grand Master
Hsing Yun of Fo Guan Shan, thus enabling the Sinhala readers to have an insight
into Buddhism as interpreted by an eminent prelate of the Mahāyāna tradition.
[9] This advice had
been given by Asoka in his Rock Edict XII.
[10] See my booklet
“Towards Universal Buddhism” published by the Sri Lanka Regional Centre of the
World Fellowship of Buddhists, Colombo 1984, elaborating my first article
published in Hindustan Times, Delhi, India in 1954.
[11] Countries have
been more successful with national organizations like the Japanese Buddhist
Federation and the Chinese Buddhist Association. Legally established mechanisms
are in operation in Myanmar and Thailand.
[12] See my “An
Agenda for the International Buddhist Community”, Karunaratne and Sons, Colombo
1993 Chapter II.
[13] First
presented to the International Conference Buddha Sasana in Theravada Countries
– Issues and the Way Forward, Colombo, Sri Lanka, 2003. See its report “Way
Forward for Buddha Sasana,” Ministry of Buddha Sasana, Colombo, 2003.
*
